1. Germanic Invasions:
* Angles, Saxons, and Jutes (5th century AD): These tribes brought their own Germanic languages, forming the basis of Old English. Words like "bread," "house," "night," and "strong" originated from this period.
* Vikings (8th-11th centuries AD): The Norse invasions introduced words related to warfare, navigation, and law, such as "berserk," "skull," "knife," and "law."
2. Norman Conquest (1066 AD):
* French Influence: The Norman conquest brought about a dramatic shift in the language. French became the language of the ruling class, influencing both vocabulary and grammar. Many words related to government, law, and high society entered the language, such as "parliament," "justice," "court," and "noble." This created a split between "high" and "low" language, with French becoming the prestige variety.
* Code-switching and Borrowing: English speakers adopted French words and phrases, sometimes leading to doublets (two words with similar meanings, like "king" and "roy"). This interaction between languages also led to changes in pronunciation.
3. Later Invasions and Influences:
* Latin Influence: Latin, as the language of the Church and scholarship, also contributed significantly to English vocabulary. Words like "angel," "bishop," and "school" come from Latin.
* Scandinavian Influence: The ongoing Viking presence and trade continued to contribute words, particularly related to navigation and exploration.
* Greek Influence: The Renaissance brought about a renewed interest in Greek culture, leading to the adoption of words like "philosophy," "democracy," and "atom."
Impact on Grammar and Pronunciation:
* Simplification of Grammar: Old English had a more complex grammatical system than modern English. The Norman Conquest contributed to simplification, with the loss of many grammatical cases.
* Shifting Pronunciation: The influence of French pronunciation changed the sound system of English. For example, the French pronunciation of "k" as "ch" in words like "church" and "knife" became adopted into English.
In Summary:
The English language is a living example of how language is constantly evolving. Invasions were crucial to the development of English, introducing new words, grammatical structures, and pronunciations. While these influences can be traced back to specific historical events, the ongoing process of language change continues to shape the language we speak today.